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    Review

    Apoptosis: Mechanisms of Programmed Cell Death and its Biological Significance

    Subramani Parasuraman1★, Chavan Madhavrao2, Mythili BK3★ Corresponding author

    1. 1Faculty of Pharmacy, Unit of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Basic Health Sciences, AIMST University, Bedong, Kedah Darul Aman, MALAYSIA.
    2. 2Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Mangalagiri, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA.
    3. 3Department of Physiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Mangalagiri, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA.

    CORRESPONDENCE

    Subramani Parasuraman

    Faculty of Pharmacy, Unit of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Basic Health Sciences, AIMST University, Bedong, Kedah Darul Aman, MALAYSIA.

    parasuphd@gmail.com

    Received: 22-01-2026; Revised: 08-03-2026; Accepted: 18-04-2026.

    Volume 15, Issue 2 · pp. 49–54 · PUBLISHED 2025 · DOI: 10.5530/fra.2025.2.7

    View on Free Rad. Antiox. original site ↗

    ABSTRACT

    Apoptosis is a highly regulated, genetically programmed form of cell death essential for maintaining homeostasis in multicellular organisms. Unlike necrosis, which involves cell swelling and inflammatory rupture, apoptosis is characterized by distinct morphological features, including cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, nuclear fragmentation, and the formation of membrane-bound apoptotic bodies. This process is primarily orchestrated through the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways, both of which culminate in a proteolytic cascade involving initiator and executioner caspases. The biological significance of apoptosis spans embryonic development, immune system regulation, and the elimination of damaged or virus-infected cells. Efficient phagocytosis of apoptotic remains, or efferocytosis, ensures tissue renewal without an inflammatory response. Dysregulation of these pathways is central to various pathologies, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases. This review summarizes the morphological and biochemical mechanisms of the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways and evaluates their biological significance for tissue homeostasis and disease pathology.

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      Parasuraman, S., Madhavrao, C., & BK, M. (2025). Apoptosis: Mechanisms of Programmed Cell Death and its Biological Significance. Free Radicals and Antioxidants, 15(2), 49–54. https://doi.org/10.5530/fra.2025.2.7